East European Studies

Question 1.
Formerly the Middle East was referred to as the near east. Even though this region has no clear border outline, it is estimated to be the region between the Oxus and River Nile. Besides, most countries in north of Africa and south west of Asia (only Turkey) are conceived to be in the region. Middle East boasts recording the first form of civilization in the world. The most important factor influencing todays world is the economy of this particular region. Oil is the single most factors that makes this region very attractive and the oil generated within its boundaries is the main driver of the worlds economy (Richards  Waterbury 13).

The economy of Middle East
         Though marked by a series of un-ending wars, the Middle East comprises some of the greatest growing economies in the world like Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia. The corner stone to these great forms of economy in the Middle East is petroleum products from the large oil deposits found in the region. The oil boom was experienced in the mid seventies in the period of the war between the Israelites and the Arab nations. Exportation and oil pricing process in the region is controlled by an eleven member country organization called the organization of petroleum exporting countries (OPEC). This organization has a lot of political affiliation and has the power to hold the exportation of oil to countries with different political opinions from them (Richards  Waterbury 43) . The Middle East supplies over 65 of all the oil in the world. This has greatly influenced the economy of the countries around the Persian Gulf to grow in a very alarming rate. This has come with the opening of other opportunities in the area for instance the United Arab Emirates in particularly Dubai has seen a lot of development for the past decade. Currently Dubai has experienced a stream of investors no other country has ever seen in a very short time. This has quickly transformed the country into a business centre making it one of the most flourishing economies in the world. In overall the discovery of oil products in the region has led to the overall increase of the countries GDP (Richards  Waterbury 52).

           Harmonization of trading relationships, ample revenue projections by the Governments and exercise of power has been witnessed in these Arabic nations. This has also came with the increase in the level of living standards among the citizens of these countries bearing in mind that some of the worlds richest people come from oil producing countries like Saudi Arabia. The repercussions to this have also been felt. Was the war on Iraq due to the blood thirsty for oil That question posed in everybody minds when Bush attacked Saddam Hussein. There is no clear evidence that it was due to oil in the Mesopotamian country but different sources suggested that the war was influenced by unilateral sanctions imposed to the United States by the United Nations on Iraq. The Iraq war is largely about oil (Richards  Waterbury 66).


Q2
The Ottoman Empire and the Middle East
The Republic of Turkey came into being in 1923 after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. During the 14th century, the Ottoman Turks were among the most influential and powerful empires to ever capture most of the central Asia. They later on expanded their form of rule to the Middle East and slowly into Europe (Chambers). The goals of the empire were to take control of the Mediterranean area, create a Muslim state and spread religion among its subjects. In order to rise and administer its rule the Ottoman Empire conquered the European system and managed to acquire a very huge territory. By the year 1683, the empire was deteriorating in leadership after it lost Vienna for the second time to the Europeans and that saw the increase in conquest from the European adversaries (Chambers).

Reasons for failure
The thirst for leadership was one among their reasons for failure. The rule of succession and royal families generated to this. Queen mothers after the death of their husbands would not let the royal seat be assumed by another person other than their own children regardless of age. This led to the construction of many palaces. This period was nick named the The sultanate of women (Chambers). Corruption erupted and bribery into office was experienced. In the mid 17th century a family known as the great Koprulu family tried to eradicated corruption in the empire through administering traditional reforms. Admission in the military was also affected by corruption. Incompetence was experienced in their armies and this was a loop-hole to the Europeans. Heavy taxes were imposed to finance their young infantries and secure firearms. The subjects to the empire were not happy with this. Unfavorable trade methods due to poor intellectual know how was very evident in the system. After their defeat by a movement called The Young Turk revolution the Ottoman Empire left ferried their troops from Istanbul, Libya, Balkan, turkey, Iran and Iraq to join the 1st word war on the German side. That was the end of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East never to be heard again in the current times and rule. The Ottoman Empire lasted for 600 years (Chambers).

Q3
The National Movement of the Iranian Resistance
This movement comprised of various Iranian people who were dissatisfied by the religious indoctrination in Iran. It was founded in the early 1980s by Dr. Shapur Bhakhtiar in an attempt to bring to an end the dictatorial rule of Khomeini. The main aim of the movement was to sensitize the Iranians about the religious fanaticism they were involved in and educate them on democracy. Democratic reforms was one of the main agenda of the moderate opposition that was against the dictatorial regime of the Shah. Thus the National Movement of the Iranian Resistance (NMIR) wanted to replace the regime that was power with a democratic government (DeFronzo 23). The movement belief was that by establishing a religion free of Government intervention would bring prosperity in the country and initiate peace within the region and the whole of the Persian Gulf. The activities of the movement were focused in establishing a force that would bring to an end the Islamic republic and get the international community to support its activities.

However the movement was not received well in the country, this was because of the Islamic fanaticism that Khomeini elicited amongst the Iranians and was considered a Grand Imam who could not be opposed. His word was always considered law, for example he ordered the killing of British citizen Salman Rushdie for blasphemy, that order was taken very seriously by the Iranians and to date the author of the Satanic Verses is afraid of his life.  Dr. Shapur Bhakhtiar was assassinated in August 1991 by agents of the Islamic Republic (DeFronzo 62).

The Western Countries especially Britain and the U.S funded to some extent the movement and harbored some of its members. In fact Bhakhtiar was assassinated in France where he had been exiled. The movements power and energy was sapped after the assassination of its leader and though still exists to date it has not had any meaningful Impact (DeFronzo 23).

Winter, also identified as SNOW TIME, happens on one occasion a year, frequently amid autumn and spring. Winters all through Russia are extremely chilly, apart from cool conditions down the black Sea, where the temperatures remain above 80C. Snowstorm face in southern Russia lasts as of 60 to 80 days also as of 260 to 280 days in the remote North. In a year, there are six months full of darkness beyond the Arctic Circle. Temperatures crosswise this section of Russia can get to harshly cold heights. Wintry weathers in Northern as well as middle European Russia might be extremely chilly. Wintry weather in southern European Russia as well as transversely the plains is greatly smaller than in the north, although extremely wintry on the other hand. The temperate effect of the Black Sea creates for gentle wintry weathers crosswise the plains all along its north and northeast shores.
The typical as well as minimum temperatures in Russian sections vary. Within Yakutia, the wintry weather is mainly harsh, with lowly temperatures approximately to -650C (around -750F). Within the European sections of Russia (west to Ural mounts), the standard wintriness temperature infrequently drops below -150C, however has main deviations for instance, the winter 20052006 demonstrated temperature approximately to -300C within Moscow in January, in 1 week. In Russia, this time of the year is known as the Epiphany colds and has been well-known for its small temperatures for many years. Nevertheless, the largest part of the current winters was abnormal temperate in the inner Russia. However, one of the aspects for temperatures is the Continental atmosphere. The additional cause is the topography of Russia it is located to the north as Canada, although amid small open water within to stock up the energy from the sun.
How Winter Has Affected Russian Life
There are some things concerning Russia which cannot be expected for the period of those warm, sunlight months of global summer. There are some things regarding Russia which barely appear with the earliest snowstorm, some things that can only be observed when those first, brittle colorless peels begin to drop. Russia is at its top for the period of the wintry weather and its winter which makes Russia a different world. Moreover fortunate for Russia, wintry weather here is not a short time that is ended sooner than it has yet started, other than no less than four months length. In a number of areas it is shorter, for instance in the Caucasus, while in other areas it is longer, for example in northern Siberia and northern Far East.
All through the other three spells of the year Russia as well as Russians appear like the majority inhabitants in a good number of countries they dress in denims and t-shirts as well as sneakers. Not until that single hallowed time of year begins , not until those dim plus chilly months commence, not until then do they exit all out of style wise and not only demonstrate but also show that they are a different people, with an absolutely dissimilar way of life. Fur-spotting might as well as ought to be well thought-out as an authorized game for foreign persons here.  Everything is either completely prepared out of hair or else has fur decoration or extra types of fur particulars. Men as well as women who esteem themselves very much dress in fur caps double the magnitude of their skulls. This might create a difficulty when getting in as well as out of structures and community transportation given that taking out head dress outside in Russia is measured to get you chilly in five seconds and consequently not an alternative. People who value themselves to a slighter grade dress in fur caps of lesser dimension. The similar canon as well is relevant when it comes to fur coats-the further esteem one has for oneself (or the cash one has in ones pouch, the larger and longer also fluffier is the coat). Nevertheless, each and every single of the above contain a single item in general- they are prepared from actual fur.
Concerning shelter as of the harsh Russian wintry weather, not anything besides functions, this is what a Russian would speak to any person inquiring this. Russians will as well say to you, exactly subsequent to having given explanation about the correct methods to separate your windowpanes as well as someplace you can purchase a silvery chinchilla cover, that with no consuming animal protein plus doubling-up your every day ingestion of fat, there is no means you are going to endure here until March draws closer and the snowfall begins to liquefy. On a fine calendar day I may inform them that I have been a lacto-vegetarian ever since the time of ten plus that I have lived three Russian wintry weathers exclusive of putting on something  any person had to pass away for me to take pleasure in.
In Russia, people are able to consume ice-cream yet in -300C, all the further charming, and all the strange furthermore extremely amazing this is another thing that makes Russian winter the more exceptional. Josefina said that the standard Russian consumes more ice-cream in December than during July.
Wintry weather time of year is a fantastic as well as fascinating term, particularly Russian winter. The snow chips declining from the sky layering the land by a spongy white coverlet, appealing icy molds at window panes make exclusive attraction of this time of the year. North-west Russia has the greatest winter with icy weather conditions, subterranean snowfall, and the paranormal Northern illumination. The North-West Russia in the wintry weather is an absolute ecstasy for skiers as well as snowstorm enthusiasts. On the other hand, skiing ought to be the major doings in the wintry weather. During this period of the calendar, there are activities for everybody living there dog-sleighing, snowfall trips, ice fishing, polar tours are just a number of of entertaining as well as accessible amusements. Wintry weather sports event, celebrations in addition to festivals highlight the charisma of wintry weather.
According to Cheryl Dybas in the Washington Post, he reported that more than 3,000 cases of infectivity originating from Hantaviruses have been accounted up to now in Russian metropolis as well as townships, together with several that are in a small number of hundred miles of Moscow, for instance Voroneczh and Lipetsk. The germs can cause a severe, as well as occasionally lethal, illness acknowledged as Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome, (HFRS). For the duration of Russias extra characteristically cold wintry weathers, scientists suppose, HFRS-causing germs become extinct in the constantly negative temperatures. The bugs are spread to human beings when contaminated pests set up housekeeping in the corners as well as crevices of dwellings, shelters, huts and other structures. If the dung left by the pests is troubled, the germs drift up and out of the secretions similar to a steam, contaminating people who inhale the air. Environmentalists approximate that the present populace of rodents in Russia is ten times as high as in preceding years, and that one in three mice is contaminated with an HFRS-causing germ. Signs of contamination more often than not build up one to two weeks subsequent to contact but in odd cases might assume up to 8 weeks. The premature symptoms are headaches, fever, chills as well as vomiting, or a skin complaint or reddishness about the eyes. A good number of sufferers stay alive even though they may be extremely ill for a moment absolute healing can take weeks or months. Nevertheless, a few kinds of HFRS contamination have elevated death rates.
Conclusion
The living conditions and health of Russians has been affected a lot by the winter season. As discussed above, the daily activities of the Russians change when winter comes. The type of clothing, eating habits, and sporting activities as well as the economic activities are adversely affected by the winter weather. The Russians have adopted survival mechanisms to enable them adapt to this chilly weather and over the history they have invented ways of living during this cold season while maintaining their economic activities. Diseases related to the winter climate have also cropped up and these have been escalated by the climate change, especially global warming.

The modern worlds debt to many aspects of the Roman Empire is easy to identify. Modern European languages owe much to Latin, as do modern legal systems, modern literature, philosophical thinking, even the very histories and self-identities of modern nations. Cities in Europe, especially areas to the North and West of Greece and Italy exist today because the Romans built them. Before the Romans, the concept of the city was unknown in these regions (Reader 82). Cities were The influence of Roman cites is is still evident today throughout Europe, North Africa and the Middle East (Reader  82). Notions of belonging to a common world, of universal norms and rights, derive from Rome, at least partly. Systems of governance and concepts of citizenship have been have been inspired by Rome. The way that the Roman Catholic Church is organized and how clergy dress derives from Rome. National notions of having a special mission in the world have found inspiration in Rome. Many European cities still contain remnants of Roman occupation. This begins to shift from Romes cultural to Romes technological legacy. Roman ideas and Roman culture impact modern life so pervasively but what about technology With modern developments in electronics, computers, the micro-chip, radio, television not to mention modern science and medical knowledge, surely the significance of the Roman heritage is a matter of history, not continued relevance Surprisingly, this is not the case. Behind a great deal of contemporary engineering, architecture and building technology including hating, sanitation and plumbing as well as town planning and our understanding of how cities function stands solid Roman ground. Modern technology has an often-unacknowledged debt to the technology that allowed the Roman Empire not only to exist but also to achieve much of what it did. A huge territory was efficiently governed, communication passed from colonial outposts to the center, large armies moved along roads that still exist today. Much of Europes existing system of land communication and transport builds on what Rome left behind. Some roads lasted a thousand years with relatively little maintenance. In discussing Roman technologys significance for the modern world, its architectural and transport related aspects are highlighted. This is set within the wider context of the fact that without Romes legacy, people today might very well see the world differently. In many respects, when we look at the world, we see a reality that has been shaped by Roman ideas, in which Roman technology still forms the basis of much of what makes our function on a day-to- basis. This survey begins with the very idea of the city. Their design, function and communication networks, perhaps their very existence, build on Roman precedents.
Cities as Legacies of Roman Technology
Rome was itself a city. The Roman Empire took the city to the next level surpassing the role they had played in Greece, although Rome openly borrowed both intellectually and technologically from other civilizations generally and from the Greeks especially. Cities, for Romans, symbolized civilization, thus urban living distinguished the civilized from the uncivilized (Reader 83). One Senator put it like this, let the wild beast live in fields and woods men ought to draw together in cities (Reader 83). In building and running their empire, cities were central. It was from these that the empire was governed. Romans imposed their authority on the surrounding provinces from the cities they built (Reader 83). Cities needed to be networked, so long, straight roads connected them. Cities needed water, so aqueducts were built to supply this. Some technologies associated with Roman cities, sewerage, sanitation, heating, were neglected in later times yet still form the basis of such utilities and services today. Basic technology in these areas is still Roman. These urban centers were linked to an extensive network of well-engineered and surfaced roads, along which officials could travel up to 320 km a day on important business (Reader 83). The design of these cities often followed a template of intersecting blocks and streets on a grid system. Evidence of Roman grid-iron style of city planning survives today, says Reader (84). Places of worship, residence, theaters, public baths and other buildings were laid out according to this established pattern. It is easy to see how a modern city such as New York owes a debt to this model.
Plumbing and every day sanitation taken for granted in modern life
Expanding on the legacy of the Roman City, Guy says that, modern plumbing and sewerage systems owe much to Romans, as does Western architecture and language (19). He says that perhaps the most impressive legacy left by Rome were the roads, many of which were not vastly improved until the 19th century and often follow their original Roman course (19). The technology involved in building roads has advanced in terms of equipment used but not that much in design and construction. Some techniques involved in road construction were revived as recently as the nineteenth century. The ditch was dug, then layers of rocks and stone were placed into the ditch with flat stones as a base or foundation. This was topped with layers of rough and smooth concrete to form the surface, or pavement. Finally, a stone layer was added together with trenches for drainage alongside the road.
The Relevancy of Buildings and Architecture
Several features of Roman architecture continue to inform modern buildings. They perfected the semi-circular arch (Guy 2) and invented a new form if very strong concrete and improved the ways bricks were manufactured (Guy 27). Use of concrete as a ubiquitous and relatively inexpensive building material still owes much to Roman technology, although modern concrete and Roman are not identical. Stylistically, Roman architecture has seen revivals during different periods and continues to be popular for some buildings. The dome of the US capitol building is inspired by a Roman design. Domes, with the semi-circular arch, were Roman innovations or improvements. The arch enabled them to span greater distances than previous civilizations had been able to achieve and led to the invention of the dome (Guy 27). Great churches, public buildings, Colleges and many other constructions in the modern world owe their domes to Roman technology. Many aspects of Roman urban life were neglected and technologies forgotten when the empire collapses. Cities began to decline and such infrastructure as public baths, roads, libraries became sources of material to construct other buildings (Jenkyns 45). Even where some remnants of Roman sewerage and sanitation systems remained Medieval cities lacked such systems and were filthy, dangerous place. The Romans had public baths supplied with hot water and made a ritual of bathing. In the Middle Ages, people thought that more than one annual bath was unhealthy. Refuge litter and human excrement made urban space into health hazards. Early Christians rejected most anything Roman, including the value of cleanliness. St. Benedict pronounced that, to those that are well, and especially for the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted (Plumbing and Mechanical). In Rome, the sewer built in ancient times is still in use, Called the Cloaca Maxima, this sewer is one of the largest of the ancient sewers still in use. It was designed to carry off the surface water, and otherwise provide drainage for the entire city, says Plumbing and Mechanical. In comparison, the problem of safe waste disposal was unsolved in 14th century England where the refuse from the kings kitchen ran through the Great Hall in an open channel endangering the health of all who congregated there (Plumbing and Mechanical). Thus, the magazine can categorically state that
its to the plumbing engineers of the Old Roman Empire that the Western world owes its allegiance. The glory of the Roman legions lay not only in the roads they built and the system of law and order they provided. It was their engineering genius and the skill of their craftsmen that enabled them to erect great baths and recreation centers, the water supplied by aqueducts from sources miles away (Plumbing and Mechanical).

When modern men and women realized the need for sanitation and sewerage, it was to the heritage of the Roman legacy that they turned, so that contemporary plumbing and sanitation systems are derived from a re-discovery of Roman technology. Roman achievements in these fields are the basis for modern technology, technology that millions of people utilize every day. It was beause of their superior engineering skills and architectural ideas that the Romans could conquer, influence and rule such a huge empire (Szasz). It was once more the arch that enabled the Romans to build their aqueducts taking sanitation to their colonies, such a system was unheard of in other civilizations but Romans were a very sanitary and hygienic people to whom fresh water was very important (Szasz). Water conveyed by aqueducts was used for the baths and for toilets as well as for drinking. Szasz suggests that the grandeur of public baths has yet to be equaled and stresses the communal nature of bathing in Roman culture, which is hardly the custom today. Baths were public forums were people debated topical issues, where civil life flourished. Sadly, while the institution of the public library survived into modern times, there public discussion is discouraged except at special meetings. Thus, the Romans brought clean water to the towns and cities they conquered using the aqueducts which are still inspiring and influential monuments today (Szasz). We can only speculate whether many modern constructions will retain the same lasting grandeur as that which the Romans built, says Szasz, adding that Rome was not built in a day.

Roads that were originally surveyed and built by Romans still function as major transport networks across vast spaces enabling daily trade, communication, travel and cultural exchange. Even where Romans never trod, the concept of interlinking highways that connect city to city, allowing both the business of life and that of government to take place, owes much to Rome. Much of what we take for granted in the modern world, such as clean water, sanitation and sewage, owes a debt to Rome. When we enter a public building, the chances that some feature of architecture was inspired if not copied from Rome is high. In addition to everyday language that derives from Latin, including computer (computare), auditorium, stadium, school (schola), library (liber), diploma, the use of Roman technology or of Roman inspired technology make the impact of Romes legacy on modern life ubiquitous, Imagine if we did not attend a school where we receive a diploma, study in the Library or watch a football game in a Stadium but used other words for all of these Life would not be the same. Words derived from Latin, including the above are found in all European languages. Hygienic refuse disposal is taken for granted. We take for granted that water will flow from the facet when we turn on a tap. The technology that makes this happen is Roman.

The development of organised, civil societies, as opposed to cultures based entirely on local agriculture, drove early attempts to standardise subunits of the day using such technologies as sundials, water clocks, and sand clocks (Boorstin 26-36). Mechanical alarm clocks were created initially to ensure that early Christians could perform their religious duties at the precisely proper times of day (Aveni 92).  Sea navigation of ever-greater distances demanded greater precision, resulting in critical technological advancements such as clocks based on the regular movement of a pendulum (Boorstin 49-53).  Further developments led to wristwatches, quartz clocks, and most recently, atomic clocks.  With each advance in technology, the day was subdivided into smaller units with greater accuracy.  At the same time it is important to understand that while sundials, clocks, and other devices were developed to keep track of hours, minutes, and seconds, it has also always been important to society to keep track of passing days.  This initially facilitated planning in agriculture, and coordination of long-term and large-scale activities (Steel 10-11).  Units of multiple days such as weeks, months, and years were developed and employed.  Calendars were developed based on the path of the Sun through the seasons, around the path of the Moon, or both.  The growth of villages into towns and cities led to calendars for the coordination of markets and trade, as well as communications and travel.  For instance, early Greek society created its own unique calendar system for both civil and religious purposes (Mikalson ix). Irregularities in the orbits of the moon and the earth, along with ongoing changes among leading religions, led to numerous reforms of the prevailing calendar system.  The Greek calendar and others influenced the Roman calendar, which transitioned into the Julian calendar.  The Julian calendar, in turn, was finally reformed into the Western Gregorian calendar that is in widespread use today (Couderc 186-188). From the critical perspective, the rich, complex history of the understanding and tracking of time continues to affect all aspects of life, on all time scales.  We still rely on nature for our food supply, and nature remains cyclical over time, and thus people continue to have keen interests in the control of standardized time.  As vividly articulated by Allen Bluedorn the possibility that time can explain other phenomena, especially human behaviour, is the scientific raison detre for studying time and caring about it (Bluedorn 6).  Finally and most fundamentally, we remain faced with the finite nature of our own lives.  Our extent of awareness and consciousness of time may have profound implications for how we choose to live our lives.  
TIME LOCATION OF THE SUN
In contemporary context, the simple question do you have the time, reflects a desire to learn the current precise moment of the current day, as denoted by todays timepieces clocks and watches. However, such a question would have been absurd in ancient times.  The time of the day was equally apparent to all, as it was given by the position of the sun in its path across the sky.  Daybreak, sunrise, noon, sunset, and darkness were the planetary events that indicated when to wake, work, eat, and sleep (Landes 1).  For cultures that have no need for precision greater than this, the position of the sun is still the method for telling time.  The central African Konso people divide the day into seven segments over our 9am-8pm interval (11 hours), where each intervals name describes a common activity of that time of day.  For example, 5pm-6pm, or kakalseema, means, when the cattle return home, an event that occurs when sunset approaches (Aveni 90-91). With practice, the daylight portion of the day can successfully be accurately determined to about twelve divisions - approximately equivalent to our hours - with just the arms and naked eyesight (Aveni 91).
TIME SUNDIALS
For greater precision in time telling, time-keeping technologies were born.  The first such technology almost certainly consisted of placing a stick vertically into the ground, and noting the progression of the shadow throughout the day (Aveni 91).  It is not clear when and where the first sundial was invented, but they were used by ancient Greeks, Romans, Druids, and other civilizations of ancient history (Cunynghame 37-38 Landes 14).  They have been in use to some degree ever since indeed wherever and whenever there is sun on the planet, a simple sundial may be utilised to tell the time of day to a reasonable precision.
Two key design elements in a simple horizontal sundial are the style, or the object designed to cast shadows, and the demarcations on the horizontal portion of the sundial that denote sub-parts of the day by the position of the shadow cast by the style.
If the sundial were designed for use at the North Pole, the style could be vertical to the ground. Otherwise, however, a sundial with a vertical style in use at other latitudes gives times, other than noon, differently at different times of the year, resulting from the tilt of the earths axis with respect to its orbital plane (Flood and Lockwood, 24).  Thus, a horizontal sundial that is to be used year-round must have its style parallel to the earths axis, which is to also say it must point (approximately) toward the north star.  This angle corresponds to the latitude of the dial (Cunynghame 35-36).
Secondly, in order for the sundial to denote hours of equal length over the course of the day, unless the sundial is in use at the North Pole, the face of the sundial must have the hours marked on it in at non-equal distances.  This is because the rate of change in the angular motion of the styles shadow over the course of a day depends upon the angle of the ground to the sun, as determined by local latitude.  Thus, a reliable sundial that divides the daylight time into equal hours must accommodate this effect.  One way to envision such a design utilizing 24 positions marking 24 hours on the face of the sundial, which is parallel to the ground, is to model 24 arcs equally dividing a sphere from one pole to the other, at the angle reflecting the latitude of the location of the dial.  The arcs cross the plane of the face of the dial at uneven intervals, corresponding to regularly spaced intervals of time during the day (Cunynghame 35-37).
According to historical and archeological evidence, ancient Greek and Roman sundials, carved from blocks of different kinds of calcareous stone, are easily distinguished from late and modern varieties by their shape and more importantly by their engraved network of hour lines and day curves.  The evidence suggests that Greek and Roman diallers preferred conical and spherical dial faces.  Greek and Roman sundials always marked the twelve seasonal hours of daylight between sunrise and sunset.  Although being mathematically calculated and being of equal length during a given day, seasonal hours length varied during the year, being the shortest at winter solstice and longest at summer solstice (Higgins 345).  The foot of the gnomon could be placed in any convenient position.  From the critical perspective, Greek and Roman sundials were reliable sources of time retrieval. With few exceptions, the day curves trace the path of the gnomon points shadow at solstices and equinoxes (three lines in all), so the accurately engraved Greek and Roman sundial served as a crude calendar (Higgins 345).  Its calendary day curves are divided by eleven hour points and connected by eleven hour lines. The first hour begins at sunrise the last hour ends at sunset.
Historians do know that the notion of seasonal hours has a long history, and they know that classical astronomers used instuments which marked seasonal changes in the position of the sun.  These practices may well have combined to imspire the design of the sundial. Vitrivius list of sundial designs includes the names of their inventors. The more familiar names are those of Hellenistic astronomers and mathematicians Apollonius, Berossos, Eudoxus, and Theodosius (Gibbs 22).  This impressive roster suggests that the sundial developed as a scientific instrument in the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C.  There are several reasons why the successful designer of dials would have to possess the talents of both a mathematician and an astronomer. As astronomer he considers the observable path of the sun on the celestial sphere. As mathematician he contrives to project that path into a shadow receiving surface.  For instance, Ptolemy considers some facts about the celestial sphere, established by Hellenistic astonomers, which were certainly of particular interest to astronomer-diallers in Graeco-Roman antiquity the size of the earth is negligible, compared to the diameter of the apparent surrounding sphere of the suns path, so that the point of gnomon on the surface of the earth mayb be considered as if it is at the ceneter of the earth the horizon halves the universe the longest of the year equals the longest night (in Gibbs 25). Such considerations simplify the problem of projecting a specific part of the path of the sun through a gnomon point onto a shadow receiving surface. Vitruvius and Ptolemy recognised that two important parameters sufficienty determined the suns path observed at any place on earth geographical latitude and obliquity of the ecliptic (Gibbs 26).  Gnomons, shadows and perhaps even primitive sundials helped to establish the value of these parameters necessary for the construction of the dials which survived through centuries.
TIME WATER CLOCKS
Other than their unequal hour lengths, which was not actually considered a drawback in ancient Greece and Rome, the more fundamental factor limiting the usefulness of telling time by the sun with sundials is that the sun is only in the sky about half of the time.  When daylight turns to night, time can be roughly determined by noting the positions of the stars as they rotate about the North Pole over the course of the evening.  Viewing the night sky in order to ascertain the time of nights has its obvious drawbacks as well, as it is impossible on a cloudy night. Even a cloudy day rarely completely obscures the position of the sun in the sky, hinting at the time of day. However, a cloudy night can be pitch-black, and was especially so in ancient times with few man-made sources lighting the darkness.
So as a complement to sundials for telling time during the day, water clocks were initially the preferred technology during the night (Cunynghame 37).  A water clock measures the passage of time by the amount of water that has fallen through a small hole in a container of water. It was found that water would drip through such a small hole at a relatively constant rate, resulting in an instrument that could mark the passage of periods of time by noting the changes in water levels in either the water source tank or in the waters destination vessel.
The first engineering challenge with a water clock is that the rate.that water drips through the hole turns out to depend in part upon the pressure from above.  A full tank causes faster dripping, while a nearly empty tank causes somewhat slower dripping.  One simple solution here was to keep an approximately constant amount of water in the tank (Cunynghame 37-38).  The better solution was to slant the walls of the vessel holding the water such that the height of the water would fall at a constant rate (Boorstin 30).  In order for the water clock to be widely adopted in Rome, where the popular sundial had established variable-length hours depending upon the day of the year, water clocks were eventually successfully developed with variable rates of drip that could be correlated to the approximate length of hours for any day of the year (Cunynghame 39-40).
Other issues with water clocks included the changing viscosity of the water caused by variable temperatures, and the tendency of water to wear bigger any hole that it is designed to drip through.  Solutions to such problems were attempted by using materials other than water (such as sand, oil, or mercury) and by employing the most durable materials available for the water to drip through.  Fire clocks were also devised, where the challenge was to find materials that would burn at standardised rates.  However, the fundamental physical reality was that a device designed for something to drip, or flow, or burn at a constant rate needed considerable human attention and maintenance (Boorstin 35 Cunynghame 45-47).
TIME SAND CLOCKS  THE HOURGLASS
Of all the variations on the water clock mentioned above, one of particular importance was the water clock where sand was utilized instead of water - otherwise recognised as the hourglass. One advantage of sand was that it would flow at temperatures where water would freeze (Boorstin 33).  However, sand is less fluid than water, so it was more difficult to calibrate with other timepieces precisely.  The sandglass also had to be built very large to measure time periods of multiple hours, or small ones had to be manually turned frequently (Boorstin 33-34).
From the historical perspective, the earliest known image of a sandglass is portrayed on Ambrogio Lorenzettis fresco, The Allegory of Good Government, painted on the walls of the council chamber in the Palazzo Pubblico of Siena around 1339 (Shenton, 52). Modern scholars might know more about the early history of sandglasses if it were known when this image was painted.  One way or the other, the sandglass was in use by the middle of the fourteenth century.  However, if the sandglass was in use by the mid-fourteenth century, then when was it actually invented The art of blowing glass developed in Syria in the first century B.C.E (Turner 164). That skill is the most sophisticated one required for the manufacture of a sandglass but, as historians of technology are well aware, even if it is technically possible for an object to be made at a given point in time, that does not necessitate it being actually manufactured then. The earliest probable date for its initial development is sometime in the twelfth century, when developments in navigation, such as the importation of the compass into Western Europe and the development of portolan maps, helped to create a flowering of trade and transportation networks.  The addition of the sandglass to this combination of technologies would have increased navigational flexibility certainly in the later Middle Ages, the sandglasss shipboard use was one of its most important functions. Whether or not it actually developed that early, however, remains a matter of conjecture.
Historians emphasise that one of the major contributions of the sandglass was in sea navigation. While at sea, in order to estimate the ships location, the sailor needed to be able to measure the ships speed of travel.  The standard technique devised was to use a heavy piece of wood that was tied to the end of a rope with knots tied into it at specific regular intervals.  With the other end of the rope safely aboard, the wood was thrown overboard.  As the rope was pulled through a sailors hands into the water, he counted the number of knots that went by while time was measured by a small sandglass, typically measuring half a minute.  The number of knots pulled indicated current speed of travel (Cunynghame 41-43 Boorstin 34).  This is the direct origin of the knot unit of speed, still in use today.
By the middle of the fourteenth century, sandglass was an established technology in use in a number of disparate locations across Western Europe, as is shown by the earliest data testifying to its existence.  While the sandglass was an important tool for sailors early on, it was by no means used exclusively for navigational purposes.  Only one of the early documents refers to sandglasses purchased particularly for shipboard use. In 13345, the clerk of the Kings ship La George, Thomas Stetesham, wrote up receipts documenting payment in Flanders for sixteen glass timekeepers, orologios vitreis, twelve at four and a half gross, and another four for five gross (Turner 152-153).  In the inventories of Charles V of France dating from 1380, a sandglass is described as suitable for use at sea, leaving it unclear whether or not this particular exemplar of it was used that way or not.  The scribes description of the sandglass in Charles Vs inventory as a large timekeeper of the sea, consisting of two large vessels full of sand implies that the sandglass was not widely in use as a household implement at the time, for otherwise the mention would not include this description of its component pieces (Turner 164). Anyone already familiar with the construction of a sandglass at the time would not have needed a description of its manufacture, as is shown by later inventories which describe the degree to which the sandglasss frame was elaborate, but omit any further functional description of the devices construction.
TIME THE VERGE ESCAPEMENT AND MECHANICAL CLOCKS
Sundials, water clocks, and sandglasses, plus other less important variations on these, were inventions that successfully divided the day or night into concrete portions of time, but the devices all had their limitations.  It took the needs of modern European Christians of the fourteenth century to motivate inventors to devise and begin to perfect the earliest mechanical clocks (Boorstin 36).  These earlier mechanical timekeeping devices did not yet have faces and dials, instead they were designed to produce sounds at certain times they were purely alarm clocks.  The times when they were designed to alarm were the Churchs prescribed daily times for prayer and other religious duties (Boorstin 36-37).
The key technology of the first mechanical clocks was the escapement.  An escapement is
nothing more than an arrangement that would regularly interrupt the force of a falling weight. The interruptor was so designed that it would alternately check and then release the force of the weight on the moving machinery of the clock. (Boorstin 38)
The verge escapement design required a weight to fall only a short distance in order for the mechanical clock to keep relatively accurate time for hours.  For the first time, there was technology for dividing any day of the year into 24 equal hours, and the ability to design clocks that could reliably mark any desired hour of each day.
The broadening popularity of the new mechanical clocks reached beyond devout Christian practitioners.  Church towers became clock towers, standardising the hour for entire communities (Boorstin 39).  Furthermore, owning a clock became a status symbol, and the members of the growing elite class of the eleventh to fourteenth centuries measured their status in part by the clocks they owned and operated (Landes 74-75).  Some clocks were designed as large and elaborately engineered machines offering impressive public mechanised entertainment on the hour, every hour, for those fortunate enough to witness it (Boorstin 44-45).  By around 1330, the variable-length hours of the sundial were completely replaced by the fixed-length modern hour as measured by clocks.  A new phrase appeared in reference to the current hour, time of the clock or oclock (Boorstin 39-40).
It was relatively simple for clocks to be designed to mark not just the top of the hour, but shorter intervals such as the half-our or quarter-hour as well.  In another key design advancement, mechanical clocks finally offered a constant visual representation of the present moment in time when they started utilizing the clock dial, which was invented by the Italian doctor and scholar Jacopo de Dondi (1290-1359) in 1344 (Boorstin 45).  The clock dial provided a standardised visualization of the time that could be understood by all, with only the limited amout of literacy necessary to decode the meaning of the hand on the dial.